Postmodernism is the logical extension of relativism. Originating in France and the United States, postmodernism later spread throughout the Western world, infiltrating both social and political theories. Postmodernism is a perspective that rejects the existence of a universal truth with immutable values, refusing to accept any fixed assumptions. It is often said that, just as there was a transition from pre-modern to modern societies and from medieval to modern theories, we are now facing a major paradigm shift, claiming that we are moving from modern to post-modern societies.

This perspective became popular in the 1990s, with the habit of adding the prefix “post-” to concepts and adjectives. It started with Daniel Bell’s definition of the post-industrial society as a post-post-industrial society. Later, terms like “End of History,” “End of Society,” and “End of Politics” were used in the postmodernist stance as a protest and desire for liberation against the intellectual shallowness promoted by modernity and the sufferings it caused in societies.

Postmodernism stands in opposition to the singularity advocated by modernity, emphasizing plurality, diversity, and the foregrounding of identities. However, it’s crucial to note that postmodernism is not a homogeneous and uniform movement. When we think of postmodernism, scholars like Baudrillard, Derrida, Lyotard, and Zygmunt Bauman often come to mind. The common denominator among these thinkers is their belief that there is not a single version of truth, justice, and democracy. Naturally, when discussing the concepts of truth, justice, and democracy, the Enlightenment philosophy comes to the forefront.

The Enlightenment philosophy, developed in the 18th century by French, British, and German intellectuals, laid the framework for the three-legged Enlightenment, involving the French Enlightenment, German Enlightenment, and the Scottish Enlightenment, with the Scots playing a significant role in Britain. Though they had specific characteristics, the encyclopedists, a group of French writers in the mid-18th century, are generally considered at the center of the Enlightenment. This group, including Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, and others, aimed to compile knowledge encompassing all sciences, arts, and philosophy to enlighten people and make their actions rational. They claimed that there was a single version of truth and justice.

Enlightenment Thinkers and Kant’s Emphasis on Maturity and Autonomy

Enlightenment thinkers, such as Kant, have writings that underscore the maturation and liberation of the human mind. Kant’s 1784 essay titled “What is Enlightenment?” is a call to individuals who can see beyond the guidance of unquestioning obedience to certain leaders and guides, urging them to break away from this path and think freely. In his book “Critique of Pure Reason,” Kant suggests that individuals should move away from a self-imposed state of childhood, where one cannot use their own intellect without guidance. This is not due to a lack of intelligence but rather the inability to demonstrate the courage to use one’s intellect without guidance.

The Latin phrase “Sapere aude!” encapsulates the essence of Kant’s call – “Dare to know!” This daring involves using one’s intellect and having confidence in it. The prevalent view among Enlightenment thinkers, including Kant, is that reason is the foremost attribute of humanity. Through reason, individuals not only think but also act correctly. This implies a connection between theoretical and practical intelligence. According to Enlightenment thinkers, human nature is inherently good, and individuals, as well as societies, can progress and improve through the use of reason.

Descartes, mentioned by Kant, argued that all humans are endowed with reason and are equal in terms of intellect, making them equal before the law as free individuals. Descartes also advocated tolerance towards beliefs, although not towards prejudices, local customs, and traditions, which he considered products of history rather than the intellect. Enlightenment thinkers believed that applying reason could protect societies from evils and enhance public life, similar to how it could improve individual lives.

The Enlightenment movement aimed to break ties with the values of established orders, traditions, and power centers, often associated with feudalism and the privileges of the clergy. The Enlightenment sought to restore reason to individuals, grant freedom, and sever ties with traditions and past power structures. Rousseau’s “Social Contract” exemplifies these efforts, envisioning a rational state achieved through a well-designed legal system.

Enlightenment thinkers believed that good laws could solve problems, and this conviction, though seeming naive today, was widely shared in the 18th century. They saw laws and constitutions as a series of systematically organized rules created by reason. The Enlightenment aimed to sever ties with prejudices, religious dogmas, and feudal structures. It represented a movement against the medieval era, symbolized by feudalism, carrying an anti-feudal identity and an anti-dogmatic quality.

Kant, in particular, argued that civilization is in a continuous process of progress, with individuals bearing great responsibility for this progress. Those who dare to use their intellect, leaving behind childhood, prove their maturity as autonomous individuals. Autonomy, in this context, means the ability to make one’s own decisions, not relying on guidance, and taking full responsibility for those decisions. This state is referred to as adulthood.

Kant encourages optimism about the future, emphasizing that progress is an undeniable reality. He believes that progress is inevitable and points to history as evidence. According to Enlightenment thinkers, progress is almost a destiny for societies, as long as individuals can use their intellect properly and free themselves from the constraints of existing traditions or religious doctrines.

While Enlightenment thinkers were critical of biases and religious authorities, they also aimed to bring religion within the bounds of reason. The Enlightenment thought, with its modern aspects, acknowledges certain issues and challenges. For instance, the universalism of rationality has led to utopian ideas, and the passion for progress has been a catalyst for various crises in the contemporary world. For example, fascism, which, similarly, in terms of rationality, appeared to be the most perfect economic development model, failed in Asia or Africa.